table of Contents
Chapter 2, from where pessimists helplessness
13 years later I finally figured out a fact. That is, if my parents to send me to my best friend Jeffrey home overnight, at home, it must be something big happened. The last time they sent me home to Jeffrey, I found mother went to the hospital moved hysterectomy. This time, I feel my father what had happened, because since then, his behavior is very strange. Usually he is very calm and very stable, but recently he became very emotional, sometimes he was very angry, and sometimes secretly crying.
On the way to send me to Geoffrey house, he suddenly took a deep breath, pulled up to the curb to rest. We sat in the car did not speak, he later told me that he left half of the body to lose feeling, numbness for about twelve minutes. I could feel the fear in his voice, I was scared.
He was only 49 years old, coincided with the peak period of life. Since the Great Depression, so even though he was the top student in law school, but do not dare to take risks to find a paying job, but condescend to post a small civil service. Not long ago he finally made his most bold decision to run for higher office in New York, I am proud of him.
I myself at that time also is facing a growing crisis in the first. When the fall semester, my father took me to a private high school militarization of public schools, because the high school enrollment rate is only good for Albany school, graduates can enter a good university. I found that I go after school is the only child of middle-class families, others are rich people's children, I feel very lonely, excluded.
My father parked the car in front Geoffrey house, I said goodbye to him, I was choking throat, deeply disturbing. When I woke up next morning at daybreak, feeling somehow frightened, as if something is going to happen, I must hurry home. I secretly left Jeffrey home, ran across six streets get home in time to see his father lying on a stretcher was carried out when the home. I hid behind a tree peek, I saw that he wanted to show the courage, but I heard him gasp and said he could not move. He did not see me, do not know that I had witnessed his most embarrassing image. He later suffered a stroke three times, he is completely paralyzed, from the body to the emotions have become helpless.
They did not let me go to the hospital to see him, go to the nursing home did not let me go. Finally one day they finally let me see him, when I walked into the room, I could feel he was as nervous as me, because he does not like me to witness his helplessness.
My mother talked to his God and how to do later.
"Aileen," he whispered: "I do not believe in God, from now on, I no longer believe anything I believe you and the kids, I want to die.."
This is the first time I felt helpless pain produced. Then I saw his father again and again in this state, until a few years after his death. He made me go down this road of exploration research, his despair strengthened my determination to study.
In the year after the stroke, my father, my sister was in college students often bring back some of the books I read to precocious in her encouragement, I first come into contact with Freud. I lay on the hammock in the backyard reading his "Interpretation of Dreams," When I read that he says that people often dream of teeth falling, I felt a familiar, I have been in this dream! What I was surprised that he resolved to this dream. Freud dreamed teeth fall out on behalf of the guilt and castration masturbation, dreaming of his father with fear of castration way to punish his sin of masturbation. I wonder how Freud so much about me! I later learned that Freud teeth dream often occurs in adolescence and during adolescence is common masturbation linked the reader the feeling of deja vu. His explanation combined with the possibility of confusing and appetizing hint. I had decided I will go the same way as Freud put forward the issue as he did.
Many years later, when I entered Princeton University to become a psychologist or psychiatrist, I find little-known Princeton's Department of Psychology, and its philosophy department is world class. Philosophy of mind and philosophy of science seems to be one until I get a bachelor's degree in philosophy, I am confident Freud's question is right. But his answer has been unable to convince me, and his methods - with just a few cases make great observation on the assumption that makes me feel very bad. Then I already know, only by experiment to find out cause and effect relationship scientifically, the application of this principle as the "helpless" This emotional problems, too applicable, a causal relationship to treatment only to learn how to find out.
Motionless dog
In 1964, I started graduate school of experimental psychology. I am 21 years old, underarms, buttressed by a new bachelor's degree, and excitedly to the laboratory of Professor Solomon (RichardLSolomon) University of Pennsylvania report. I am very eager to do research with Professor Solomon, one of the most famous of learning theorists He is not only the world, but also in a research project I am most interested in: he wanted from rigorous animal experiments begin to understand the nature of mental illness. Solomon's laboratory at Hale House, the school's oldest and most old building. When I opened the door crumbling laboratory door, I almost thought it should come off. I saw a tall, thin, bald head almost all the professors Solomon stood across the room, engrossed in thinking about a certain thing. Other people in the lab are talking about, no one noticed me in.
His most senior graduate student, a very friendly, Oufomiya from the Midwest, and immediately volunteered to explain to me what happened.
"Those dogs," Oufomiya said: "The dogs motionless, I do not know where something was up if the dog does not move, would not be able to do the experiment.." He went on to explain that these dogs in the past few week experiment done in a technique called migration (transfer), and have been classical conditioning Pavlov's reflex training. Every day they receive two different stimuli - the sound of a high frequency and a short electric shock. Sound and shock in pairs: first a shock after a voice. Electric shock is not strong, just like the winter static electricity sometimes hand as when to open the door. The purpose of the experiment was to test whether dogs will sound and shock together. If they learned this association, that when they heard that voice, you will feel like a real fear that an electric shock.
After the dog learned to tie, the main part of the experiment began. The dogs are placed in a middle of a short gate is separated into two halves, can shuttle back and forth in the large box. Experimenters to look at the dog after hearing the sound, will not make the same reaction with an electric shock - Skip low gates to escape electric shock. If so, this indicates emotional learning can also "migrate" to many different situations.
Of course, the dog must first learn to skip the short brake to avoid electric shock. After learning this, to observe will not cause the same reaction if only sound. The task for a dog should be easy, as long as it does not skip the short gate receiving an electric shock.
Oufomiya say that these dogs whine just lying on the ground, they not even try it. Of course, the dog does not trip when no man can continue to do the next experiment to see the reaction of the dog to the sound.
When I listened to Oufomiya explained, looking at the whine of a dog, I realized that a far more "migration" more important things happened: early in the course of the experiment, the dogs must be in virtually learned " helpless, "so they will not give up now. This has nothing to do with the sound. In Pavlov's classical conditioning, electric shock or not with the actions of the dog itself has nothing to do, at the time of shock, whether the dog is called, is still struggling to jump, the shock will not stop. So they got to this conclusion - no matter what they do are not used, if there is no impact on the upcoming events, then why do it?
I was shocked by the meaning behind this. If the dog can learn to unhelpful behavior behind such a complex relationship, "helpless" can be studied in the laboratory. From the slums of the poor to a newborn baby, to the hospital desperate patients, "helpless" everywhere, but there is no scientific research for the helpless. I quickly thought about the:? This is the helplessness of human experimental model it I can use this model to understand its source you how to treat it how to prevent it what drugs and what would it effective???? people tend to become its victims?
In order to people, you should sacrifice a dog
Although this is the first time I saw learned helplessness in the laboratory, but I immediately knew what it was. Although others also see it in the lab, but they think of it as experiments continue to hamper things, I do not think that this phenomenon itself is worth studying. Perhaps my father brought me inspiration hemiplegia. I later took 10 years to convince the academic world, this phenomenon occurs in dogs is helpless; now it can be learned, it can also be eliminated by learning.
I am more excited about this discovery, but also frustrated to other things. I can be like other students as innocent of a dog administered electric shocks? The shock though not fatal, but it will at least bring the dog pain. I have always loved animals, especially dogs, so I do not want to let them painful. So when the weekend I went to see my old philosophy teacher, though he was only a few years older than me, but I think he is a wise man.
I described to him what I have seen, the meaning behind it, the most important is my heart doubts.
My professor is the study of the history and ethics, he asked me: "Martin, you have no other way to solve this problem you feel helpless to study how about those helpless cases??"
We both know case studies in science is of no value. Case studies just described life in some patients with anecdotes, it can not give us any inference of a causal relationship, we do not know what happened behind the case, because it is the storyteller's narrative perspective, so this event must It will be distorted. Only tight control variables experiments to separate the "cause", and with "due" to find a method of treatment. In addition, I can not impose on the people a shock, therefore, can only do the experiment with dogs.
"The suffering of animals impose reasonable?" I asked.
My professor reminded me that today humans and pets can live so long mainly contributed by the animal experiments, without these animal experiments, polio, smallpox today would wantonly popular. "Conversely," he continued:. "The history of science is full of not achieve the purpose of experiments that were promised to alleviate human suffering, but in the end did not do."
"I ask you two things. First, you may relieve pain in the future for many people, the pain is much more serious than you add in dogs to now? Second, you get the conclusion can be applied to animals person? "I answer to both questions above is yes.
My professor warned me that scientists often obscured by his ambition, forget the original purpose of the experiment. He asked me to make two commitments: Once I found out I want to understand the cause and effect relationship, immediately stop the experiment dogs; once I got answers the need for animal experiments in order to get, you must immediately stop all animal experiments.
Animals can learn to give
My confidence back to the lab, thinks he can establish a helpless animal models, but in a large number of graduate students, only Mel (Steve Maier) a person think that this experiment is possible. Meyer grew up in the Bronx slums, because excellent results, so went to the best universities. He knew that the real world does not help is what he himself has personally experienced that feeling, his discerning eye, to see that this animal model worth the trouble to study. We designed an experiment to see how animals learn helpless, we experiment this experiment is called three yuan (triadic experiment), because it needs to do three sets of animals together.
The first group of animals can escape electric shocks through their own efforts. As long as they are with his nose to push a piece of wall board can stop the shock, so the animals have control of.
The second group of animals shock of the first group are conjugate, that they bear the same number and the intensity of the shock suffered, but the second group of animals no matter what can be done to make electric shock to stop.
The third group was the control group, did not receive any electric shocks.
After three groups of animals through the above procedure, we can put them in a shuttle to and from the box. Logically, they should quickly learned to skip the short brake to avoid electric shock. Our hypothesis is: learn a second group of dogs is how to do it to no avail, so it will lie on the ground to withstand the shock and nothing to do.
Professor Solomon publicly expressed his doubts. According to was the most popular theory of behavioral psychology, animal or person can not learn helplessness. Professor Solomon In discussing our experiment, said: "Only an organism in reaction to bring the case of reward or punishment, it may learn to react in this experiment you designed, the reaction has nothing to do with rewards and punishments, it does not comply with the current learning theory. . in any situation, it is impossible to study the occurrence of "Oufomiya went on to say:" animals can learn how to do what they did with it regardless of the animal is not high-level mental activity, they might not have the cognitive ability?. "
both of them, although skeptical, but very supportive of our experiments, but also told us not too quickly to conclusions. Animals may also be due to other reasons not to avoid electric shock, such as electric shock caused by too much pressure, so that the animals give up.
Mel and I think we ternary experiments can verify these possibilities, because the group can escape and inescapable group of animals have the same degree of pressure. If we are right, then it should not escape the dog will only group to give up.
January 1965, we started this experiment. We have brought these three groups of dogs can shuttle to and from the box a shock to see that they will skip the short brake.
The first group of dogs, their behavior can be used to control electric shock dog group that, after entering the box, found within a few seconds can skip low gate to escape electric shock. The third group, that group has not received an electric shock dog, into the box, also found that within a few seconds to skip the herd is not a shock. Only the second group, the group believes that no matter how ineffective dogs do not have to jump, stay in this half of a shock, though short brake is easy to jump over, but it does not try to see what it was like on the other side.
We repeated this experiment eight times, in groups of 8 dogs helpless, there are six sitting there waiting for a shock; and the first group of 8 dogs, there is no one to give up.
Mel and I believe that only inescapable event will engender give up mentality, because they have received the same shock but control animals did not have the heart to give up. Apparently, the animal can learn their behavior is unhelpful, they become so passive and not do anything. Our experimental results show that the central premise of learning theory is wrong, that learning can occur only generated when the reward or punishment in behavior.
To declare war on behaviorism
Mel and I put the results written papers cast out. To our great surprise, "Journal of Experimental Psychology" (JournalofExperimentalPsychology), one of the most conservative journal editor actually accepted our paper, and it came in his first open-book. We tantamount down the gauntlet to the learning theorists, the two of us fledgling graduate school of behaviorism dare say master Skinner's theory is wrong!
There are many experiments in the history of psychology can be called a "critical" test, Mel and I was only 24 years old, we have made this critical experiment to turn things around. 60 years, behaviorism control of the American psychology. In the area of study, master of all scholars are behaviorism, the behaviorist school although the idea is obviously far-fetched.
Behaviorist school of Freudian theory advocated just the same as a violation of common sense. Behaviorists insisted that all acts of a person only by reward and punishment he got the decision: a rewarded behavior may be repeated, and is a punishable act may be depressed, that's all.
Consciousness - think, plan, anticipation, memory does not affect behavior. It is like a car speedometer, it does not make the car go, but reflects the state of the car travel. Behaviorists believe that human behavior is totally shaped by the environment, without being influenced by his inner thoughts.
It is difficult to imagine that a wise person can accept this idea, but since the end of World War I, the United States have been psychology was dominated by behaviorism dogma. Behaviorists hold human anomalies optimistic: just change a person's environment, you can change a person's behavior. If you catch a thief, you can punish him of theft, reward his good behavior to transform him.
When Europe is to personality traits, genes, etc. instinct to explain the behavior, American psychologist also clinging behavior by advocates of environmentalism hold. This is the general situation in 1965 academia. We believe that this behaviorist only reward and punishment in order to strengthen the link argument is nonsense. For a behaviorist explain behavior at work: people go to work because of this behavior has been working salary (bonus) the strengthening, rather than the expected salary strengthened his reaction. Behaviorism think people grow up, the situation has nothing to do with his reaction.
Mel and I think the reason why the dog was lying immobile on the floor electric, because they learned how they do not use, so they are expected in the future as well.
Behaviorist who can not admit helpless dog is a learned expectation that doing nothing with the idea, behaviorism has always stressed animal and human behavior is the only way to learn, it can never learn a thought or expected.
Let's experiment opponents to silence
Behaviorists Champion said in an interview with electric shock when the dog, there must be some point, when it happens to lie still shock stopped, put the dog to stop the pain and its behavior banded together, which strengthened its resting Fixed reaction. So the dog will stop waiting for a shock.
Conversely this chicanery, it can be said the dog was not rewarded but punished, because there are certainly some point, when a dog to lie still shock just begun, because of this dog should be punished and repressed it stationary Reaction. Behaviorists deliberately ignored vulnerabilities on this logic, the only reaction adhere to the dog learns to stand still.
For this chicanery, Meyer designed a very clever experiment. "Let's do an experiment, let the dog behaviorist experienced by those who argue that at every stage, and make them super helpless." He said: "They are not standing still and that a dog is rewarded because of it ? then we let the dog gets rewarded when stationary: If the dog is stationary for more than 5 seconds, we put the power stopped. "in other words, we deliberately do behaviorists believed to be accidental, accidental that. thing.
Behaviorists forecast: Awards stationary will cause the dog does not move. But according to our theory, we learn to control the dog is not going to become helpless. Mel designed an experiment, in the first part, a first group of dogs, he called stationary group, as long as the motionless for 5 seconds, will be electrically stopped; the second group is a conjugated group, shock the number and intensity of the first group with the same, but it does not have any control over the power off; and the third group is a control group, did not receive any electric shocks.
The second part of the experiment will be shuttled to the dog of the box, to teach them to skip the short brake. When behaviorists expect an electric shock, the first and second groups are stationary, showing helpless look, because both groups have been rewarded by stopping electric shock in the case of stationary. Behaviorists predicted these two groups, the group will become more stationary fixed, stationary because they have been rewarded, and conjugate groups are occasionally rewarded. Behaviorists believe that the control group is not affected.
We believe the stationary group, because they have learned they can control electric shock to stop, so it will not become helpless when they have the opportunity to skip the low gate, they will immediately jump. We predict that most dogs conjugate group will become helpless. Of course, the control group was not affected, a round-trip into the box soon to escape electric shock.
Here are the results of this experiment.
Most dogs conjugate groups are lying motionless, as two groups of people predicted. Dogs in the control group also predicted as two groups of people, quickly learned to avoid electric shock. Only the first group of dogs, when they just entered the box and from electric shock, they still for several seconds, waiting for the power supply cut off; when the power supply is not cut off, they began to scurry around there is no other way to try to stop electric shock . They soon discovered the trick, so he jumped, jump to the other side.
When the two schools clash, in fact, difficult to design an experiment to let each other speechless, but the 24-year-old Mel did. Our findings add Chomsky, Piaget's theory and other information processing (informationprocessing) point of view makes behaviorists comprehensive defeat.
Mel and I now know how to manufacture learned helplessness, but we can do to cure it?
We have already learned helpless dog, into the box and from the hand of these dogs move reluctantly dragged over, drag the past, across the middle of the short gate until they start their own stops. We found that once they found his behavior to be effective when the power is turned off, helpless was cured. This "treatment" 100 percent effective, and permanent.
So we began to study the prevention of "helpless", we discovered a phenomenon called "immune" (immunization). If the pre-learned behavior to be effective, this study can prevent the occurrence of helplessness. We even found that when the dog or puppy when we teach it this method, the result of his life, the dog has immunity against helpless. This experiment is a great sense of humanity.
We have established the foundations of the theory, so according to the promise I promise, Mel and I stopped the experiment dogs.
Who does not easily injured
Our paper began to appear regularly in journals, learning theorists began to face skepticism and harsh criticism. Their criticisms are technical or trivial, lasted 20 years later, we won. Even the most stubborn behaviorists have begun to teach his students the concept of learned helplessness, and how to do research in this area.
The most constructive of this study is to "learned helplessness" is applied to humans. Do best is a Japanese-American graduate of Oregon State University in this regard, 30-year-old Yu who (DonaldHiroto). Yu who was looking for thesis topic, write a letter to ask the details of our experiment, "I want to use this research to humans, but my professors who are very skeptical of the possibility of this application."
Yu people experiment with our very similar to his first set of subjects into a room, the stereo sound on very large, so that they find a way to turn off the sound. They tried to press various buttons on the control panel, but the noise remains the same. There is no way to turn off the sound. Another group of subjects is just click on a permutation and combination of control buttons, the sound can be turned off. The last group of subjects is not affected by noise interference.
Yu then people try to be taken to another room, the room has a test box (shuttlebox), when you put his hand on the side of the test chamber, there will be very difficult to listen to the voice out of the other side when the handle is moved, the noise He stopped.
One afternoon in 1971, Yu called me.
"Martin," he said, "I think we got some interesting results. Those that a group of people began to accept the inescapable noise, can you believe it? Most of them just sat there endure without trial the handle is moved to the other side of the experimental box. "I can feel the excitement of Yu who, though he tried to keep it professional tone. "It's like they learned of the noise is no alternative, so they not even try it, even if the time, place, situation has changed, they put in front of helpless noise brought a new experimental situations. However, All others - those that can turn off the noise in the first part of the experiment and the people in the control group, are very easy to learn method to turn off the noise "!
I feel this may be the years of efforts to reach the pinnacle. If people can learn and helpless because of the noise, then the real world people often experience frustration and combat, they are likely to learn helplessness.
According to Yu who found in every three people there is one person does not become helpless. In our experiments, but also every three animals have one does not become helpless. In later experiments operations, we manufacture many helpless situation, these experiments support the people of the margin found in every three people there is one person does not become helpless.
There is another person's margin experiment interesting findings: Although never suffered setbacks, but there will be 10 people in the box next to the experimental one person sitting in the no action is taken, would rather endure the terrible noise. This is very similar to our findings, there are 10 animals in a helpless from the start.
Our satisfaction was soon replaced by curiosity. Who it is easy to give up, who never give up? Why? Obviously, some people suddenly collapsed, while others indomitable, to rebuild a new life in the ruins.
After seven years of experiments, we know not whether to rebuild their lives after the failure of innate personality traits, it can be learned.
Proverbs optimism
Animals can learn their behavior is unhelpful, they become so passive and not do anything. Our experimental results show that the central premise of learning theory is wrong, that learning can occur only generated when the reward or punishment in behavior.
Many experiments helpless situation shows that every three individuals only one person does not become helpless. In addition, although never suffered setbacks, but each will have a 1 in 10 people began to take a personal give-up attitude.